3 Things That Make Theatre Unique Among Art Forms Are That

Collaborative form of performing art

Theatre or theater ^[a] is a collaborative form of performing art that uses live performers, usually actors or actresses, to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, oftentimes a phase. The performers may communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of gesture, oral communication, vocal, music, and dance. Elements of fine art, such every bit painted scenery and stagecraft such as lighting are used to enhance the physicality, presence and immediacy of the experience.^[ane] The specific place of the functioning is likewise named by the word "theatre" as derived from the Aboriginal Greek θέατρον (théatron, "a place for viewing"), itself from θεάομαι (theáomai, "to encounter", "to watch", "to observe").

Modern Western theatre comes, in large measure, from the theatre of ancient Greece, from which it borrows technical terminology, classification into genres, and many of its themes, stock characters, and plot elements. Theatre creative person Patrice Pavis defines theatricality, theatrical language, stage writing and the specificity of theatre as synonymous expressions that differentiate theatre from the other performing arts, literature and the arts in general.^{[2] [b]}

Modern theatre includes performances of plays and musical theatre. The art forms of ballet and opera are as well theatre and use many conventions such as acting, costumes and staging. They were influential to the evolution of musical theatre; run into those articles for more data.

History of theatre [edit]

Classical and Hellenistic Hellenic republic [edit]

A delineation of actors playing the roles of a primary (right) and his slave (left) in a Greek phlyax play, circa 350/340 BCE

The city-state of Athens is where western theatre originated.^{[iii] [4] [5] [c]} It was function of a broader culture of theatricality and performance in classical Greece that included festivals, religious rituals, politics, police, athletics and gymnastics, music, poetry, weddings, funerals, and symposia.^{[half dozen] [5] [7] [eight] [d]}

Participation in the city-land's many festivals—and mandatory omnipresence at the City Dionysia equally an audience member (or even as a participant in the theatrical productions) in particular—was an of import office of citizenship.^[10] Civic participation also involved the evaluation of the rhetoric of orators evidenced in performances in the law-court or political assembly, both of which were understood as coordinating to the theatre and increasingly came to blot its dramatic vocabulary.^{[xi] [12]} The Greeks likewise developed the concepts of dramatic criticism and theatre compages.^{[13] [14] [fifteen]} Actors were either apprentice or at best semi-professional.^[sixteen] The theatre of ancient Greece consisted of three types of drama: tragedy, comedy, and the satyr play.^[17]

The origins of theatre in ancient Greece, co-ordinate to Aristotle (384–322 BCE), the first theoretician of theatre, are to be establish in the festivals that honoured Dionysus. The performances were given in semi-circular auditoria cutting into hillsides, capable of seating 10,000–20,000 people. The stage consisted of a dancing flooring (orchestra), dressing room and scene-building surface area (skene). Since the words were the most of import role, good acoustics and clear delivery were paramount. The actors (always men) wore masks appropriate to the characters they represented, and each might play several parts.^[18]

Athenian tragedy—the oldest surviving grade of tragedy—is a type of dance-drama that formed an important part of the theatrical civilization of the urban center-state.^{[3] [4] [5] [xix] [20] [e]} Having emerged quondam during the 6th century BCE, information technology flowered during the 5th century BCE (from the finish of which it began to spread throughout the Greek globe), and continued to be popular until the showtime of the Hellenistic menstruation.^{[22] [23] [four] [f]}

No tragedies from the 6th century BCE and but 32 of the more a 1000 that were performed in during the fifth century BCE accept survived.^{[25] [26] [g]} Nosotros have consummate texts extant past Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.^{[27] [h]} The origins of tragedy remain obscure, though by the fifth century BCE it was institutionalised in competitions (agon) held as role of festivities celebrating Dionysus (the god of wine and fertility).^{[28] [29]} As contestants in the City Dionysia's contest (the well-nigh prestigious of the festivals to phase drama) playwrights were required to nowadays a tetralogy of plays (though the private works were not necessarily connected by story or theme), which ordinarily consisted of three tragedies and one satyr play.^{[30] [31] [i]} The functioning of tragedies at the City Dionysia may have begun as early as 534 BCE; official records (didaskaliai) brainstorm from 501 BCE, when the satyr play was introduced.^{[32] [xxx] [j]}

Most Athenian tragedies dramatise events from Greek mythology, though The Persians—which stages the Persian response to news of their armed forces defeat at the Battle of Salamis in 480 BCE—is the notable exception in the surviving drama.^{[30] [yard]} When Aeschylus won starting time prize for it at the Urban center Dionysia in 472 BCE, he had been writing tragedies for more than 25 years, yet its tragic treatment of recent history is the primeval example of drama to survive.^{[30] [34]} More than 130 years afterward, the philosopher Aristotle analysed 5th-century Athenian tragedy in the oldest surviving work of dramatic theory—his Poetics (c. 335 BCE).

Athenian one-act is conventionally divided into three periods, "Onetime One-act", "Middle Comedy", and "New Comedy". Old Comedy survives today largely in the form of the xi surviving plays of Aristophanes, while Heart One-act is largely lost (preserved just in relatively short fragments in authors such as Athenaeus of Naucratis). New One-act is known primarily from the substantial papyrus fragments of Menander. Aristotle defined one-act equally a representation of laughable people that involves some kind of blunder or ugliness that does non cause hurting or disaster.^[fifty]

In add-on to the categories of comedy and tragedy at the City Dionysia, the festival too included the Satyr Play. Finding its origins in rural, agronomical rituals dedicated to Dionysus, the satyr play eventually institute its way to Athens in its about well-known form. Satyr'south themselves were tied to the god Dionysus every bit his loyal woodland companions, often engaging in drunken carousal and mischief at his side. The satyr play itself was classified every bit tragicomedy, erring on the side of the more than mod burlesque traditions of the early twentieth century. The plotlines of the plays were typically concerned with the dealings of the pantheon of Gods and their involvement in human affairs, backed by the chorus of Satyrs. Even so, according to Webster, satyr actors did not always perform typical satyr actions and would break from the acting traditions assigned to the character type of a mythical forest fauna.^[35]

Roman theatre [edit]

Mosaic depicting masked actors in a play: 2 women consult a "witch"

Western theatre developed and expanded considerably under the Romans. The Roman historian Livy wrote that the Romans commencement experienced theatre in the 4th century BCE, with a performance by Etruscan actors.^[36] Beacham argues that they had been familiar with "pre-theatrical practices" for some fourth dimension before that recorded contact.^[37] The theatre of ancient Rome was a thriving and various fine art grade, ranging from festival performances of street theatre, nude dancing, and acrobatics, to the staging of Plautus'southward broadly appealing situation comedies, to the high-style, verbally elaborate tragedies of Seneca. Although Rome had a native tradition of operation, the Hellenization of Roman civilization in the 3rd century BCE had a profound and energizing effect on Roman theatre and encouraged the development of Latin literature of the highest quality for the phase. The only surviving plays from the Roman Empire are ten dramas attributed to Lucius Annaeus Seneca (four BCE–65 CE), the Corduba-built-in Stoic philosopher and tutor of Nero.^[38]

Indian theatre [edit]

Koothu is an ancient grade of performing fine art that originated in early Tamilakam.

The earliest-surviving fragments of Sanskrit drama date from the 1st century CE.^{[39] [40]} The wealth of archeological bear witness from before periods offers no indication of the beingness of a tradition of theatre.^[41] The ancient Vedas (hymns from betwixt 1500 and thousand BCE that are amid the primeval examples of literature in the globe) contain no hint of it (although a small number are equanimous in a form of dialogue) and the rituals of the Vedic period do not appear to have developed into theatre.^[41] The Mahābhāṣya by Patañjali contains the earliest reference to what may have been the seeds of Sanskrit drama.^[42] This treatise on grammar from 140 BCE provides a feasible date for the beginnings of theatre in India.^[42]

The major source of show for Sanskrit theatre is A Treatise on Theatre (Nātyaśāstra), a compendium whose engagement of composition is uncertain (estimates range from 200 BCE to 200 CE) and whose authorship is attributed to Bharata Muni. The Treatise is the most complete work of dramaturgy in the ancient world. It addresses acting, dance, music, dramatic construction, compages, costuming, make-up, props, the organization of companies, the audience, competitions, and offers a mythological account of the origin of theatre.^[42] In doing and so, it provides indications about the nature of bodily theatrical practices. Sanskrit theatre was performed on sacred footing past priests who had been trained in the necessary skills (trip the light fantastic toe, music, and recitation) in a [hereditary procedure]. Its aim was both to brainwash and to entertain.

Under the patronage of purple courts, performers belonged to professional companies that were directed by a stage manager (sutradhara), who may also have acted.^{[39] [42]} This task was thought of as beingness analogous to that of a puppeteer—the literal meaning of "sutradhara" is "holder of the strings or threads".^[42] The performers were trained rigorously in song and physical technique.^[43] At that place were no prohibitions against female performers; companies were all-male, all-female, and of mixed gender. Certain sentiments were considered inappropriate for men to enact, still, and were thought better suited to women. Some performers played characters their own age, while others played ages different from their own (whether younger or older). Of all the elements of theatre, the Treatise gives most attention to acting (abhinaya), which consists of two styles: realistic (lokadharmi) and conventional (natyadharmi), though the major focus is on the latter.^{[43] [grand]}

Its drama is regarded as the highest achievement of Sanskrit literature.^[39] It utilised stock characters, such as the hero (nayaka), heroine (nayika), or clown (vidusaka). Actors may have specialised in a particular blazon. Kālidāsa in the 1st century BCE, is arguably considered to exist ancient Republic of india's greatest Sanskrit dramatist. Three famous romantic plays written by Kālidāsa are the Mālavikāgnimitram (Mālavikā and Agnimitra), Vikramuurvashiiya (Pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi), and Abhijñānaśākuntala (The Recognition of Shakuntala). The last was inspired by a story in the Mahabharata and is the well-nigh famous. It was the first to exist translated into English and German. Śakuntalā (in English translation) influenced Goethe's Faust (1808–1832).^[39]

The next great Indian dramatist was Bhavabhuti (c. 7th century CE). He is said to have written the post-obit iii plays: Malati-Madhava, Mahaviracharita and Uttar Ramacharita. Amid these 3, the last two encompass between them the unabridged epic of Ramayana. The powerful Indian emperor Harsha (606–648) is credited with having written 3 plays: the comedy Ratnavali, Priyadarsika, and the Buddhist drama Nagananda.

Chinese theatre [edit]

Public functioning in Jade Dragon Snowfall Mount Open Air Theatre

The Tang dynasty is sometimes known equally "The Historic period of m Entertainments". During this era, Ming Huang formed an acting school known equally The Pear Garden to produce a form of drama that was primarily musical. That is why actors are commonly called "Children of the Pear Garden." During the dynasty of Empress Ling, shadow puppetry first emerged as a recognized form of theatre in China. In that location were two singled-out forms of shadow puppetry, Pekingese (northern) and Cantonese (southern). The 2 styles were differentiated past the method of making the puppets and the positioning of the rods on the puppets, as opposed to the type of play performed past the puppets. Both styles more often than not performed plays depicting great adventure and fantasy, rarely was this very stylized form of theatre used for political propaganda.

Cantonese shadow puppets were the larger of the two. They were built using thick leather which created more substantial shadows. Symbolic color was also very prevalent; a blackness face represented honesty, a crimson one bravery. The rods used to control Cantonese puppets were attached perpendicular to the puppets' heads. Thus, they were non seen by the audience when the shadow was created. Pekingese puppets were more delicate and smaller. They were created out of thin, translucent leather (normally taken from the abdomen of a donkey). They were painted with vibrant paints, thus they cast a very colorful shadow. The thin rods which controlled their movements were attached to a leather collar at the cervix of the puppet. The rods ran parallel to the bodies of the puppet and so turned at a 90 caste bending to connect to the cervix. While these rods were visible when the shadow was bandage, they laid outside the shadow of the boob; thus they did not interfere with the advent of the effigy. The rods attached at the necks to facilitate the use of multiple heads with one body. When the heads were not being used, they were stored in a muslin book or material lined box. The heads were always removed at night. This was in keeping with the old superstition that if left intact, the puppets would come to life at night. Some puppeteers went and then far as to shop the heads in 1 book and the bodies in another, to further reduce the possibility of reanimating puppets. Shadow puppetry is said to have reached its highest point of artistic development in the eleventh century before becoming a tool of the government.

In the Song dynasty, there were many pop plays involving acrobatics and music. These developed in the Yuan dynasty into a more sophisticated form known as zaju, with a four- or five-act construction. Yuan drama spread across China and diversified into numerous regional forms, one of the all-time known of which is Peking Opera which is still popular today.

Xiangsheng is a sure traditional Chinese comedic performance in the forms of monologue or dialogue.

Indonesian theatre [edit]

In Republic of indonesia, theatre performances have become an important part of local culture, theatre performances in Indonesia have been developed for thousands of years. Nigh of Indonesia's oldest theatre forms are linked direct to local literary traditions (oral and written). The prominent boob theatres — wayang golek (wooden rod-puppet play) of the Sundanese and wayang kulit (leather shadow-puppet play) of the Javanese and Balinese—draw much of their repertoire from indigenized versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata. These tales also provide source cloth for the wayang wong (homo theatre) of Coffee and Bali, which uses actors. Some wayang golek performances, however, also present Muslim stories, chosen menak.^{[44] [45]} Wayang is an ancient form of storytelling that renowned for its elaborate puppet/human and complex musical styles.^[46] The earliest evidence is from the late 1st millennium CE, in medieval-era texts and archeological sites.^[47] The oldest known record that concerns wayang is from the 9th century. Around 840 Advertizing an One-time Javanese (Kawi) inscriptions called Jaha Inscriptions issued by Maharaja Sri Lokapalaform Medang Kingdom in Cardinal Java mentions three sorts of performers: atapukan, aringgit, and abanol. Aringgit means Wayang puppet testify, Atapukan means Mask dance show, and abanwal ways joke art. Ringgit is described in an 11th-century Javanese poem as a leather shadow figure.

Post-classical theatre in the West [edit]

Theatre took on many culling forms in the West between the 15th and 19th centuries, including commedia dell'arte and melodrama. The general trend was abroad from the poetic drama of the Greeks and the Renaissance and toward a more naturalistic prose style of dialogue, especially post-obit the Industrial Revolution.^[48]

Theatre took a big pause during 1642 and 1660 in England because of the Puritan Interregnum. Viewing theatre as sinful, the Puritans ordered the closure of London theatres in 1642.^[50] On 24 Jan 1643, the actors protested confronting the ban by writing a pamphlet titled The Actors remonstrance or complaint for the silencing of their profession, and banishment from their severall play-houses.^[51] This stagnant period ended once Charles Two came back to the throne in 1660 in the Restoration. Theatre (amongst other arts) exploded, with influence from French culture, since Charles had been exiled in France in the years previous to his reign.

In 1660, ii companies were licensed to perform, the Duke's Company and the King's Company. Performances were held in converted buildings, such equally Lisle's Tennis Courtroom. The kickoff West End theatre, known as Theatre Royal in Covent Garden, London, was designed by Thomas Killigrew and built on the site of the present Theatre Majestic, Drury Lane.^[49]

Ane of the big changes was the new theatre house. Instead of the blazon of the Elizabethan era, such as the World Theatre, round with no identify for the actors to really prep for the side by side act and with no "theatre manners", the theatre house became transformed into a identify of refinement, with a stage in front and stadium seating facing it. Since seating was no longer all the way around the phase, it became prioritized—some seats were apparently amend than others. The king would have the best seat in the house: the very middle of the theatre, which got the widest view of the stage equally well as the all-time way to see the indicate of view and vanishing point that the stage was synthetic effectually. Philippe Jacques de Loutherbourg was one of the most influential set designers of the time because of his utilize of flooring space and scenery.

Considering of the turmoil before this time, there was still some controversy virtually what should and should not be put on the stage. Jeremy Collier, a preacher, was i of the heads in this movement through his piece A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Phase. The beliefs in this paper were mainly held by non-theatre goers and the remainder of the Puritans and very religious of the fourth dimension. The primary question was if seeing something immoral on phase affects behavior in the lives of those who watch it, a controversy that is even so playing out today.^[52]

Billing for a British theatre in 1829

The seventeenth century had also introduced women to the stage, which was considered inappropriate earlier. These women were regarded every bit celebrities (also a newer concept, cheers to ideas on individualism that arose in the wake of Renaissance Humanism), only on the other hand, it was still very new and revolutionary that they were on the stage, and some said they were unladylike, and looked downwards on them. Charles 2 did non like immature men playing the parts of young women, so he asked that women play their own parts.^[53] Because women were allowed on the stage, playwrights had more leeway with plot twists, like women dressing as men, and having narrow escapes from morally sticky situations as forms of comedy.

Comedies were full of the young and very much in vogue, with the storyline following their love lives: commonly a young roguish hero professing his love to the chaste and costless minded heroine near the cease of the play, much like Sheridan's The School for Scandal. Many of the comedies were fashioned later on the French tradition, mainly Molière, again hailing dorsum to the French influence brought back by the King and the Royals after their exile. Molière was one of the pinnacle comedic playwrights of the time, revolutionizing the way comedy was written and performed by combining Italian commedia dell'arte and neoclassical French comedy to create some of the longest lasting and nigh influential satiric comedies.^[54] Tragedies were similarly victorious in their sense of righting political ability, specially poignant because of the recent Restoration of the Crown.^[55] They were also imitations of French tragedy, although the French had a larger distinction between one-act and tragedy, whereas the English fudged the lines occasionally and put some comedic parts in their tragedies. Mutual forms of non-comedic plays were sentimental comedies as well as something that would later on exist called tragédie bourgeoise, or domestic tragedy—that is, the tragedy of common life—were more than popular in England because they appealed more to English language sensibilities.^[56]

While theatre troupes were formerly often travelling, the idea of the national theatre gained support in the 18th century, inspired past Ludvig Holberg. The major promoter of the idea of the national theatre in Frg, and also of the Sturm und Drang poets, was Abel Seyler, the owner of the Hamburgische Entreprise and the Seyler Theatre Company.^[57]

Through the 19th century, the popular theatrical forms of Romanticism, melodrama, Victorian burlesque and the well-made plays of Scribe and Sardou gave style to the problem plays of Naturalism and Realism; the farces of Feydeau; Wagner'southward operatic Gesamtkunstwerk; musical theatre (including Gilbert and Sullivan'south operas); F. C. Burnand'southward, W. S. Gilbert'southward and Oscar Wilde'southward cartoon-room comedies; Symbolism; proto-Expressionism in the belatedly works of August Strindberg and Henrik Ibsen;^[59] and Edwardian musical comedy.

These trends continued through the 20th century in the realism of Stanislavski and Lee Strasberg, the political theatre of Erwin Piscator and Bertolt Brecht, the so-chosen Theatre of the Absurd of Samuel Beckett and Eugène Ionesco, American and British musicals, the collective creations of companies of actors and directors such as Joan Littlewood's Theatre Workshop, experimental and postmodern theatre of Robert Wilson and Robert Lepage, the postcolonial theatre of August Wilson or Tomson Highway, and Augusto Boal's Theatre of the Oppressed.

Eastern theatrical traditions [edit]

The first form of Indian theatre was the Sanskrit theatre.^[60] It began after the development of Greek and Roman theatre and before the development of theatre in other parts of Asia.^[threescore] It emerged sometime between the 2d century BCE and the 1st century CE and flourished between the 1st century CE and the tenth, which was a period of relative peace in the history of India during which hundreds of plays were written.^{[61] [41]} Japanese forms of Kabuki, Nō, and Kyōgen adult in the 17th century CE.^[62] Theatre in the medieval Islamic world included puppet theatre (which included mitt puppets, shadow plays and marionette productions) and live passion plays known equally ta'ziya, where actors re-enact episodes from Muslim history. In detail, Shia Islamic plays revolved effectually the shaheed (martyrdom) of Ali's sons Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali. Secular plays were known equally akhraja, recorded in medieval adab literature, though they were less common than puppetry and ta'ziya theatre.^[63]

Types [edit]

Drama [edit]

Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance.^[64] The term comes from a Greek word meaning "action", which is derived from the verb δράω, dráō, "to do" or "to act". The enactment of drama in theatre, performed past actors on a stage before an audience, presupposes collaborative modes of production and a collective form of reception. The structure of dramatic texts, unlike other forms of literature, is directly influenced by this collaborative production and collective reception.^[65] The early on modern tragedy Hamlet (1601) by Shakespeare and the classical Athenian tragedy Oedipus Rex (c. 429 BCE) by Sophocles are amid the masterpieces of the art of drama.^[66] A modern example is Long Day'due south Journey into Night by Eugene O'Neill (1956).^[67]

Considered every bit a genre of verse in general, the dramatic fashion has been assorted with the epic and the lyrical modes always since Aristotle'south Poetics (c. 335 BCE); the earliest work of dramatic theory.^{[due north]} The use of "drama" in the narrow sense to designate a specific blazon of play dates from the 19th century. Drama in this sense refers to a play that is neither a comedy nor a tragedy—for example, Zola's Thérèse Raquin (1873) or Chekhov'south Ivanov (1887). In Ancient Greece nevertheless, the word drama encompassed all theatrical plays, tragic, comic, or annihilation in between.

Drama is often combined with music and trip the light fantastic toe: the drama in opera is generally sung throughout; musicals more often than not include both spoken dialogue and songs; and some forms of drama take incidental music or musical accompaniment underscoring the dialogue (melodrama and Japanese Nō, for example).^[o] In certain periods of history (the ancient Roman and modern Romantic) some dramas take been written to be read rather than performed.^[p] In improvisation, the drama does not pre-be the moment of performance; performers devise a dramatic script spontaneously before an audience.^[q]

Musical theatre [edit]

Music and theatre take had a close relationship since ancient times—Athenian tragedy, for example, was a form of dance-drama that employed a chorus whose parts were sung (to the accessory of an aulos—an instrument comparable to the modern clarinet), equally were some of the actors' responses and their 'solo songs' (monodies).^[68] Modern musical theatre is a form of theatre that besides combines music, spoken dialogue, and dance. Information technology emerged from comic opera (especially Gilbert and Sullivan), variety, vaudeville, and music hall genres of the tardily 19th and early 20th century.^[69] Afterward the Edwardian musical comedy that began in the 1890s, the Princess Theatre musicals of the early 20th century, and comedies in the 1920s and 1930s (such equally the works of Rodgers and Hammerstein), with Oklahoma! (1943), musicals moved in a more dramatic management.^[r] Famous musicals over the subsequent decades included My Fair Lady (1956), West Side Story (1957), The Fantasticks (1960), Hair (1967), A Chorus Line (1975), Les Misérables (1980), Cats (1981), Into the Wood (1986), and The Phantom of the Opera (1986),^[70] as well every bit more than gimmicky hits including Rent (1994), The Lion King (1997), Wicked (2003), Hamilton (2015) and Frozen (2018).

Musical theatre may exist produced on an intimate scale Off-Broadway, in regional theatres, and elsewhere, but it frequently includes spectacle. For instance, Broadway and West End musicals often include lavish costumes and sets supported by multimillion-dollar budgets.

Comedy [edit]

Theatre productions that use humour as a vehicle to tell a story qualify as comedies. This may include a modern farce such as Boeing Boeing or a classical play such as As You Like Information technology. Theatre expressing dour, controversial or taboo subject area matter in a deliberately humorous fashion is referred to every bit blackness comedy. Blackness Comedy can take several genres like slapstick humour, nighttime and sarcastic one-act.

Tragedy [edit]

Tragedy, so, is an simulated of an activeness that is serious, consummate, and of a certain magnitude: in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in carve up parts of the play; in the form of activeness, not of narrative; through pity and fright effecting the proper purgation of these emotions.

Aristotle's phrase "several kinds existence constitute in split up parts of the play" is a reference to the structural origins of drama. In it the spoken parts were written in the Attic dialect whereas the choral (recited or sung) ones in the Doric dialect, these discrepancies reflecting the differing religious origins and poetic metres of the parts that were fused into a new entity, the theatrical drama.

Tragedy refers to a specific tradition of drama that has played a unique and of import role historically in the self-definition of Western civilisation.^{[72] [73]} That tradition has been multiple and discontinuous, yet the term has often been used to invoke a powerful upshot of cultural identity and historical continuity—"the Greeks and the Elizabethans, in one cultural form; Hellenes and Christians, in a mutual activeness," as Raymond Williams puts it.^[74] From its obscure origins in the theatres of Athens 2,500 years ago, from which in that location survives only a fraction of the work of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, through its singular articulations in the works of Shakespeare, Lope de Vega, Racine, and Schiller, to the more than contempo naturalistic tragedy of Strindberg, Beckett'southward modernist meditations on death, loss and suffering, and Müller'southward postmodernist reworkings of the tragic catechism, tragedy has remained an important site of cultural experimentation, negotiation, struggle, and change.^{[75] [76]} In the wake of Aristotle'due south Poetics (335 BCE), tragedy has been used to make genre distinctions, whether at the scale of poetry in general (where the tragic divides confronting epic and lyric) or at the calibration of the drama (where tragedy is opposed to comedy). In the modern era, tragedy has also been defined confronting drama, melodrama, the tragicomic, and epic theatre.^[s]

Improvisation [edit]

Improvisation has been a consistent feature of theatre, with the Commedia dell'arte in the sixteenth century beingness recognised as the outset improvisation form. Popularized by Nobel Prize Winner Dario Fo and troupes such equally the Upright Citizens Brigade improvisational theatre continues to evolve with many different streams and philosophies. Keith Johnstone and Viola Spolin are recognized equally the first teachers of improvisation in mod times, with Johnstone exploring improvisation every bit an culling to scripted theatre and Spolin and her successors exploring improvisation principally every bit a tool for developing dramatic work or skills or equally a grade for situational comedy. Spolin also became interested in how the process of learning improvisation was applicable to the development of human potential.^[77] Spolin's son, Paul Sills popularized improvisational theatre as a theatrical fine art form when he founded, as its first director, The 2d Metropolis in Chicago.

Theories [edit]

Village feast with theatre performance circa 1600

Having been an important office of man civilization for more than than 2,500 years, theatre has evolved a wide range of different theories and practices. Some are related to political or spiritual ideologies, while others are based purely on "artistic" concerns. Some processes focus on a story, some on theatre as event, and some on theatre every bit catalyst for social alter. The classical Greek philosopher Aristotle, in his seminal treatise, Poetics (c. 335 BCE) is the primeval-surviving example and its arguments have influenced theories of theatre ever since.^{[thirteen] [xiv]} In it, he offers an account of what he calls "poesy" (a term which in Greek literally means "making" and in this context includes drama—comedy, tragedy, and the satyr play—as well as lyric poetry, epic poesy, and the dithyramb). He examines its "first principles" and identifies its genres and basic elements; his analysis of tragedy constitutes the core of the give-and-take.^[78]

Aristotle argues that tragedy consists of half-dozen qualitative parts, which are (in gild of importance) mythos or "plot", ethos or "character", dianoia or "idea", lexis or "diction", melos or "song", and opsis or "spectacle".^{[79] [80]} "Although Aristotle'southward Poetics is universally acknowledged in the Western critical tradition", Marvin Carlson explains, "about every particular about his seminal work has aroused divergent opinions."^[81] Important theatre practitioners of the 20th century include Konstantin Stanislavski, Vsevolod Meyerhold, Jacques Copeau, Edward Gordon Craig, Bertolt Brecht, Antonin Artaud, Joan Littlewood, Peter Brook, Jerzy Grotowski, Augusto Boal, Eugenio Barba, Dario Fo, Viola Spolin, Keith Johnstone and Robert Wilson (director).

Stanislavski treated the theatre as an art-grade that is autonomous from literature and one in which the playwright's contribution should be respected as that of simply i of an ensemble of artistic artists.^{[82] [83] [84] [85] [t]} His innovative contribution to mod acting theory has remained at the core of mainstream western performance training for much of the terminal century.^{[86] [87] [88] [89] [ninety]} That many of the precepts of his organisation of player training seem to be common sense and self-evident testifies to its hegemonic success.^[91] Actors frequently employ his basic concepts without knowing they do and then.^[91] Thank you to its promotion and elaboration by acting teachers who were erstwhile students and the many translations of his theoretical writings, Stanislavski's 'system' acquired an unprecedented ability to cross cultural boundaries and adult an international accomplish, dominating debates almost acting in Europe and the United States.^{[86] [92] [93] [94]} Many actors routinely equate his 'system' with the N American Method, although the latter'due south exclusively psychological techniques contrast sharply with Stanislavski'due south multivariant, holistic and psychophysical approach, which explores character and action both from the 'inside out' and the 'outside in' and treats the actor's listen and body equally parts of a continuum.^{[95] [96]}

Technical aspects [edit]

Theatre presupposes collaborative modes of production and a collective form of reception. The structure of dramatic texts, unlike other forms of literature, is directly influenced by this collaborative production and collective reception.^[65] The production of plays normally involves contributions from a playwright, managing director, a cast of actors, and a technical production team that includes a scenic or set designer, lighting designer, costume designer, sound designer, stage managing director, product manager and technical director. Depending on the product, this squad may besides include a composer, dramaturg, video designer or fight director.

Stagecraft is a generic term referring to the technical aspects of theatrical, picture show, and video production. Information technology includes, merely is not limited to, amalgam and rigging scenery, hanging and focusing of lighting, design and procurement of costumes, makeup, procurement of props, stage management, and recording and mixing of sound. Stagecraft is distinct from the wider umbrella term of scenography. Considered a technical rather than an artistic field, it relates primarily to the applied implementation of a designer'south artistic vision.

In its almost basic class, stagecraft is managed by a unmarried person (frequently the phase director of a smaller production) who arranges all scenery, costumes, lighting, and sound, and organizes the bandage. At a more than professional person level, for example in modern Broadway houses, stagecraft is managed past hundreds of skilled carpenters, painters, electricians, stagehands, stitchers, wigmakers, and the like. This modernistic form of stagecraft is highly technical and specialized: it comprises many sub-disciplines and a vast trove of history and tradition. The majority of stagecraft lies betwixt these 2 extremes. Regional theatres and larger community theatres volition generally have a technical director and a complement of designers, each of whom has a direct paw in their respective designs.

Sub-categories and arrangement [edit]

There are many modern theatre movements which get almost producing theatre in a diverseness of ways. Theatrical enterprises vary enormously in sophistication and purpose. People who are involved vary from novices and hobbyists (in customs theatre) to professionals (in Broadway and similar productions). Theatre can be performed with a shoestring budget or on a grand scale with multimillion-dollar budgets. This variety manifests in the abundance of theatre sub-categories, which include:

• Broadway theatre and Westward End theatre
• Street theatre
• Community theatre
• Playback theatre
• Dinner theater
• Fringe theatre
• Off-Broadway and Off West Terminate
• Off-Off-Broadway
• Regional theatre in the United States
• Touring theatre
• Summer stock theatre

Repertory companies [edit]

While well-nigh modernistic theatre companies rehearse one piece of theatre at a time, perform that piece for a gear up "run", retire the piece, and brainstorm rehearsing a new show, repertory companies rehearse multiple shows at one time. These companies are able to perform these various pieces upon request and often perform works for years before retiring them. Most dance companies operate on this repertory system. The Majestic National Theatre in London performs on a repertory organization.

Repertory theatre generally involves a group of similarly achieved actors, and relies more than on the reputation of the group than on an individual star role player. It as well typically relies less on strict control past a manager and less on adherence to theatrical conventions, since actors who have worked together in multiple productions can respond to each other without relying as much on convention or external direction.^[97]

Producing vs. presenting [edit]

In club to put on a piece of theatre, both a theatre company and a theatre venue are needed. When a theatre visitor is the sole company in residence at a theatre venue, this theatre (and its corresponding theatre visitor) are called a resident theatre or a producing theatre, because the venue produces its own work. Other theatre companies, as well as trip the light fantastic companies, who practice not take their ain theatre venue, perform at rental theatres or at presenting theatres. Both rental and presenting theatres have no total-fourth dimension resident companies. They practice, however, sometimes have ane or more function-time resident companies, in addition to other independent partner companies who arrange to apply the space when available. A rental theatre allows the independent companies to seek out the infinite, while a presenting theatre seeks out the independent companies to support their work by presenting them on their stage.

Some performance groups perform in non-theatrical spaces. Such performances can take place outside or inside, in a non-traditional performance space, and include street theatre, and site-specific theatre. Not-traditional venues can be used to create more immersive or meaningful environments for audiences. They can sometimes be modified more than heavily than traditional theatre venues, or tin can conform different kinds of equipment, lighting and sets.^[98]

A touring company is an contained theatre or dance company that travels, frequently internationally, beingness presented at a different theatre in each city.

Unions [edit]

At that place are many theatre unions including: Actors' Disinterestedness Association (for actors and phase managers), the Stage Directors and Choreographers Society (SDC), and the International Brotherhood of Theatrical Stage Employees (IATSE, for designers and technicians). Many theatres require that their staff be members of these organizations.

Run into also [edit]

• Interim
• Antitheatricality
• Black light theatre
• Culinary theatre
• Illusionistic tradition
• List of awards in theatre
• Listing of playwrights
• Listing of theatre personnel
• Listing of theatre festivals
• List of theatre directors
• Lists of theatres
• Performance art
• Puppetry
• Reader'due south theatre
• Site-specific theatre
• Theatre consultant
• Theatre for development
• Theater (structure)
• Theatre technique
• Theatrical style
• Theatrical troupe
• Globe Theatre Day

Explanatory notes [edit]

1. ^ Originally spelled theatre and teatre. From around 1550 to 1700 or later, the near mutual spelling was theater. Betwixt 1720 and 1750, theater was dropped in British English language, simply was either retained or revived in American English (Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition, 2009, CD-ROM: ISBN 978-0-xix-956383-8). Recent dictionaries of American English list theatre every bit a less common variant, east.g., Random Business firm Webster'southward Higher Lexicon (1991); The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edition (2006); New Oxford American Lexicon, third edition (2010); Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2011).
2. ^ Drawing on the "semiotics" of Charles Sanders Peirce, Pavis goes on to suggest that "the specificity of theatrical signs may lie in their power to use the three possible functions of signs: equally icon (mimetically), as index (in the situation of enunciation), or as symbol (as a semiological system in the fictional way). In effect, theatre makes the sources of the words visual and physical: it indicates and incarnates a fictional world past means of signs, such that by the end of the procedure of signification and symbolization the spectator has reconstructed a theoretical and aesthetic model that accounts for the dramatic universe."^[2]
3. ^ Dark-brown writes that aboriginal Greek drama "was essentially the cosmos of classical Athens: all the dramatists who were afterwards regarded equally classics were active at Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE (the time of the Athenian democracy), and all the surviving plays date from this catamenia".^[3] "The ascendant culture of Athens in the fifth century", Goldhill writes, "can exist said to have invented theatre".^[5]
4. ^ Goldhill argues that although activities that grade "an integral part of the practise of citizenship" (such as when "the Athenian denizen speaks in the Assembly, exercises in the gymnasium, sings at the symposium, or courts a boy") each have their "ain regime of display and regulation," all the same the term "performance" provides "a useful heuristic category to explore the connections and overlaps between these different areas of activeness".^[9]
5. ^ Taxidou notes that "almost scholars now call 'Greek' tragedy 'Athenian' tragedy, which is historically correct".^[21]
6. ^ Cartledge writes that although Athenians of the quaternary century judged Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides "as the nonpareils of the genre, and regularly honoured their plays with revivals, tragedy itself was non merely a 5th-century phenomenon, the product of a short-lived golden age. If not attaining the quality and stature of the fifth-century 'classics', original tragedies nonetheless continued to exist written and produced and competed with in large numbers throughout the remaining life of the democracy—and beyond it".^[24]
7. ^ Nosotros have seven past Aeschylus, seven by Sophocles, and eighteen by Euripides. In add-on, we besides have the Cyclops, a satyr play by Euripides. Some critics since the 17th century have argued that ane of the tragedies that the classical tradition gives as Euripides'—Rhesus—is a 4th-century play by an unknown writer; modern scholarship agrees with the classical authorities and ascribes the play to Euripides; see Walton (1997, viii, xix). (This uncertainty accounts for Brockett and Hildy's figure of 31 tragedies.)
8. ^ The theory that Prometheus Bound was non written by Aeschylus adds a 4th, anonymous playwright to those whose work survives.
9. ^ Exceptions to this pattern were made, as with Euripides' Alcestis in 438 BCE. There were as well dissever competitions at the Urban center Dionysia for the performance of dithyrambs and, after 488–vii BCE, comedies.
10. ^ Rush Rehm offers the following argument as evidence that tragedy was not institutionalised until 501 BCE: "The specific cult honoured at the City Dionysia was that of Dionysus Eleuthereus, the god 'having to do with Eleutherae', a town on the border between Boeotia and Attica that had a sanctuary to Dionysus. At some point Athens annexed Eleutherae—most probable after the overthrow of the Peisistratid tyranny in 510 and the democratic reforms of Cleisthenes in 508–07 BCE—and the cult-image of Dionysus Eleuthereus was moved to its new home. Athenians re-enacted the incorporation of the god's cult every yr in a preliminary rite to the City Dionysia. On the day before the festival proper, the cult-statue was removed from the temple near the theatre of Dionysus and taken to a temple on the road to Eleutherae. That evening, later on sacrifice and hymns, a torchlight procession carried the statue back to the temple, a symbolic re-creation of the god'south arrival into Athens, also as a reminder of the inclusion of the Boeotian town into Attica. As the proper name Eleutherae is extremely close to eleutheria, 'freedom', Athenians probably felt that the new cult was particularly appropriate for celebrating their ain political liberation and democratic reforms."^[33]
11. ^ Jean-Pierre Vernant argues that in The Persians Aeschylus substitutes for the usual temporal distance between the audience and the age of heroes a spatial distance betwixt the Western audition and the Eastern Farsi culture. This substitution, he suggests, produces a similar outcome: "The 'historic' events evoked by the chorus, recounted by the messenger and interpreted by Darius' ghost are presented on stage in a legendary atmosphere. The light that the tragedy sheds upon them is not that in which the political happenings of the day are commonly seen; information technology reaches the Athenian theatre refracted from a distant world of elsewhere, making what is absent seem present and visible on the phase"; Vernant and Vidal-Naquet (1988, 245).
12. ^ Aristotle, Poetics, line 1449a: "Comedy, as we have said, is a representation of inferior people, non indeed in the total sense of the give-and-take bad, but the laughable is a species of the base or ugly. Information technology consists in some corrigendum or ugliness that does not cause pain or disaster, an obvious example existence the comic mask which is ugly and distorted but not painful'."
13. ^ The literal meaning of abhinaya is "to carry frontwards".
14. ^ Francis Fergusson writes that "a drama, every bit distinguished from a lyric, is not primarily a composition in the exact medium; the words result, every bit one might put information technology, from the underlying construction of incident and character. Every bit Aristotle remarks, 'the poet, or "maker" should exist the maker of plots rather than of verses; since he is a poet because he imiates, and what he imitates are actions'" (1949, 8).
15. ^ See the entries for "opera", "musical theatre, American", "melodrama" and "Nō" in Banham 1998
16. ^ While there is some dispute amid theatre historians, it is likely that the plays by the Roman Seneca were not intended to be performed. Manfred by Byron is a good example of a "dramatic verse form." Come across the entries on "Seneca" and "Byron (George George)" in Banham 1998.
17. ^ Some forms of improvisation, notably the Commedia dell'arte, improvise on the basis of 'lazzi' or rough outlines of breathtaking activity (come across Gordon 1983 and Duchartre 1966). All forms of improvisation accept their cue from their immediate response to one another, their characters' situations (which are sometimes established in advance), and, frequently, their interaction with the audience. The classic formulations of improvisation in the theatre originated with Joan Littlewood and Keith Johnstone in the United kingdom and Viola Spolin in the Us; see Johnstone 2007 and Spolin 1999.
18. ^ The beginning "Edwardian musical comedy" is usually considered to be In Town (1892), even though it was produced eight years before the offset of the Edwardian era; see, for case, Fraser Charlton, "What are EdMusComs?" (FrasrWeb 2007, accessed May 12, 2011).
19. ^ Run into Carlson 1993, Pfister 2000, Elam 1980, and Taxidou 2004. Drama, in the narrow sense, cuts beyond the traditional division between one-act and tragedy in an anti- or a-generic deterritorialization from the mid-19th century onwards. Both Bertolt Brecht and Augusto Boal define their epic theatre projects (Non-Aristotelian drama and Theatre of the Oppressed respectively) against models of tragedy. Taxidou, however, reads epic theatre equally an incorporation of tragic functions and its treatments of mourning and speculation.^[76]
20. ^ In 1902, Stanislavski wrote that "the author writes on paper. The actor writes with his trunk on the phase" and that the "score of an opera is non the opera itself and the script of a play is not drama until both are made flesh and blood on phase"; quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 124).

Citations [edit]

1. ^ Carlson 1986, p. 36.
2. ^ ^{a b} Pavis 1998, pp. 345–346.
3. ^ ^{a b c} Dark-brown 1998, p. 441.
4. ^ ^{a b c} Cartledge 1997, pp. iii–five.
5. ^ ^{a b c d} Goldhill 1997, p. 54.
6. ^ Cartledge 1997, pp. 3, 6.
7. ^ Goldhill 2004, pp. 20–xx.
8. ^ Rehm 1992, p. three.
9. ^ Goldhill 2004, p. 1.
10. ^ Pelling 2005, p. 83.
11. ^ Goldhill 2004, p. 25.
12. ^ Pelling 2005, pp. 83–84.
13. ^ ^{a b} Dukore 1974, p. 31.
14. ^ ^{a b} Janko 1987, p. ix.
15. ^ Ward 2007, p. one.
16. ^ "Introduction to Theatre – Ancient Greek Theatre". novaonline.nvcc.edu.
17. ^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. 15–19.
18. ^ "Theatre | Chambers Dictionary of World History – Ideology Reference". search.credoreference.com.
19. ^ Ley 2007, p. 206.
20. ^ Styan 2000, p. 140.
21. ^ Taxidou 2004, p. 104.
22. ^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. 32–33.
23. ^ Brown 1998, p. 444.
24. ^ Cartledge 1997, p. 33.
25. ^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, p. five.
26. ^ Kovacs 2005, p. 379.
27. ^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, p. 15.
28. ^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. 13–15.
29. ^ Brown 1998, pp. 441–447.
30. ^ ^{a b c d} Brown 1998, p. 442.
31. ^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. fifteen–17.
32. ^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. 13, 15.
33. ^ Rehm 1992, p. 15.
34. ^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. 15–16.
35. ^ Webster 1967.
36. ^ Beacham 1996, p. 2.
37. ^ Beacham 1996, p. iii.
38. ^ Gassner & Allen 1992, p. 93.
39. ^ ^{a b c d} Brandon 1993, p. xvii.
40. ^ Brandon 1997, pp. 516–517.
41. ^ ^{a b c} Richmond 1998, p. 516.
42. ^ ^{a b c d due east} Richmond 1998, p. 517.
43. ^ ^{a b} Richmond 1998, p. 518.
44. ^ Don Rubin; Chua Soo Pong; Ravi Chaturvedi; et al. (2001). The Earth Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theatre: Asia/Pacific. Taylor & Francis. pp. 184–186. ISBN978-0-415-26087-9.
45. ^ "PENGETAHUAN TEATER" (PDF), Kemdikbud
46. ^ ""Wayang puppet theatre", Inscribed in 2008 (three.COM) on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (originally proclaimed in 2003)". UNESCO. Retrieved October x, 2014.
47. ^ James R. Brandon (2009). Theatre in Southeast Asia. Harvard University Press. pp. 143–145, 352–353. ISBN978-0-674-02874-6.
48. ^ Kuritz 1988, p. 305.
49. ^ ^{a b} "London's ten oldest theatres". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on January 11, 2022. Retrieved April 6, 2020.
50. ^ "From pandemics to puritans: when theatre shut down through history and how information technology recovered". The Stage.co.uk . Retrieved December 17, 2020.
51. ^ "The Actors remonstrance or complaint for the silencing for their profession, and banishment from their severall play-houses". Early on English Books Online. Jan 24, 1643.
52. ^ Robinson, Scott R. "The English Theatre, 1642–1800". Scott R. Robinson Domicile. CWU Section of Theatre Arts. Archived from the original on May two, 2012. Retrieved Baronial 6, 2012.
53. ^ "Women's Lives Surrounding Belatedly 18th Century Theatre". English language 3621 Writing by Women . Retrieved Baronial 7, 2012.
54. ^ Bermel, Albert. "Moliere – French Dramatist". Discover French republic. Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Retrieved Baronial 7, 2012.
55. ^ Black 2010, pp. 533–535.
56. ^ Matthew, Brander. "The Drama in the 18th Century". Moonstruch Drama Bookstore . Retrieved August 7, 2012.
57. ^ Wilhelm Kosch, "Seyler, Abel", in Lexicon of German Biography, eds. Walther Killy and Rudolf Vierhaus, Vol. nine, Walter de Gruyter editor, 2005, ISBN 3-xi-096629-8, p. 308.
58. ^ "7028 end. Tartu Saksa Teatrihoone Vanemuise 45a, 1914-1918.a." Kultuurimälestiste register (in Estonian). Retrieved June 23, 2020.
59. ^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. 293–426.
60. ^ ^{a b} Richmond, Swann & Zarrilli 1993, p. 12.
61. ^ Brandon 1997, p. 70.
62. ^ Deal 2007, p. 276.
63. ^ Moreh 1986, pp. 565–601.
64. ^ Elam 1980, p. 98.
65. ^ ^{a b} Pfister 2000, p. 11.
66. ^ Fergusson 1968, pp. ii–iii.
67. ^ Burt 2008, pp. 30–35.
68. ^ Rehm 1992, 150n7.
69. ^ Jones 2003, pp. iv–11.
70. ^ Kenrick, John (2003). "History of Phase Musicals". Retrieved May 26, 2009.
71. ^ S.H. Butcher, [1], 2011
72. ^ Banham 1998, p. 1118.
73. ^ Williams 1966, pp. xiv–16.
74. ^ Williams 1966, p. xvi.
75. ^ Williams 1966, pp. 13–84.
76. ^ ^{a b} Taxidou 2004, pp. 193–209.
77. ^ Gordon 2006, p. 194.
78. ^ Aristotle Poetics 1447a13 (1987, i).
79. ^ Carlson 1993, p. nineteen.
80. ^ Janko 1987, pp. xx, 7–10.
81. ^ Carlson 1993, p. 16.
82. ^ Benedetti 1999, pp. 124, 202.
83. ^ Benedetti 2008, p. six.
84. ^ Carnicke 1998, p. 162.
85. ^ Gauss 1999, p. two.
86. ^ ^{a b} Banham 1998, p. 1032.
87. ^ Carnicke 1998, p. one.
88. ^ Counsell 1996, pp. 24–25.
89. ^ Gordon 2006, pp. 37–40.
90. ^ Leach 2004, p. 29.
91. ^ ^{a b} Counsell 1996, p. 25.
92. ^ Carnicke 1998, pp. one, 167.
93. ^ Counsell 1996, p. 24.
94. ^ Milling & Ley 2001, p. 1.
95. ^ Benedetti 2005, pp. 147–148.
96. ^ Carnicke 1998, pp. 1, 8.
97. ^ Peterson 1982.
98. ^ Alice T. Carter, "Non-traditional venues tin inspire art, or just nifty performances Archived 2010-09-03 at the Wayback Car", Pittsburgh Tribune-Review, July seven, 2008. Retrieved February 12, 2011.

General sources [edit]

• Banham, Martin, ed. (1998) [1995]. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-43437-viii.
• Beacham, Richard C. (1996). The Roman Theatre and Its Audience. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN978-0-674-77914-3.
• Benedetti, Jean (1999) [1988]. Stanislavski: His Life and Fine art (Revised ed.). London: Methuen. ISBN0-413-52520-1.
• Benedetti, Jean (2005). The Art of the Player: The Essential History of Acting, From Classical Times to the Present Day. London: Methuen. ISBN0-413-77336-1.
• Benedetti, Jean (2008). "Stanislavski on Stage". In Dacre, Kathy; Fryer, Paul (eds.). Stanislavski on Stage. Sidcup, Kent: Stanislavski Middle Rose Bruford College. pp. 6–9. ISBNone-903454-01-eight.
• Black, Joseph, ed. (2010) [2006]. The Broadview Anthology of British Literature: Book 3: The Restoration and the Eighteenth Century. Canada: Broadview Printing. ISBN978-1-55111-611-ii.
• Brandon, James R. (1993) [1981]. "Introduction". In Baumer, Rachel Van M.; Brandon, James R. (eds.). Sanskrit Theatre in Operation. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. xvii–xx. ISBN978-81-208-0772-3.
• Brandon, James R., ed. (1997). The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre (second, revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-58822-v.
• Brockett, Oscar G. & Hildy, Franklin J. (2003). History of the Theatre (Ninth, International ed.). Boston: Allyn and Salary. ISBN0-205-41050-two.
• Dark-brown, Andrew (1998). "Greece, Ancient". In Banham, Martin (ed.). The Cambridge Guide to Theatre (Revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Printing. pp. 441–447. ISBN0-521-43437-8.
• Burt, Daniel S. (2008). The Drama 100: A Ranking of the Greatest Plays of All Time . New York: Facts on File. ISBN978-0-8160-6073-3.
• Carlson, Marvin (Fall 1986). "Psychic Polyphony". Journal of Dramatic Theory and Criticism: 35–47.
• Carlson, Marvin (1993). Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey from the Greeks to the Present (Expanded ed.). Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. ISBN0-8014-8154-6.
• Carnicke, Sharon Marie (1998). Stanislavsky in Focus. Russian Theatre Archive series. London: Harwood Academic Publishers. ISBN90-5755-070-ix.
• Cartledge, Paul (1997). "'Deep Plays': Theatre as Procedure in Greek Civic Life". In Easterling, P. E. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy. Cambridge Companions to Literature serial. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–35. ISBN0-521-42351-1.
• Counsell, Colin (1996). Signs of Performance: An Introduction to Twentieth-Century Theatre. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-10643-6.
• Deal, William East. (2007). Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Printing. ISBN978-0-nineteen-533126-4.
• Duchartre, Pierre Louis (1966) [1929]. The Italian Comedy: The Improvisation Scenarios Lives Attributes Portraits and Masks of the Illustrious Characters of the Commedia dell'Arte . Translated by Randolph T. Weaver. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-21679-nine.
• Dukore, Bernard F., ed. (1974). Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to Grotowski. Florence, KY: Heinle & Heinle. ISBN978-0-03-091152-i.
• Elam, Keir (1980). The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama. New Accents series. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-03984-0.
• Fergusson, Francis (1968) [1949]. The Idea of a Theater: A Study of 10 Plays, The Art of Drama in a Changing Perspective . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN0-691-01288-1.
• Gassner, John & Allen, Ralph 1000. (1992) [1964]. Theatre and Drama in the Making. New York: Adulation Books. ISBN1-55783-073-8.
• Gauss, Rebecca B. (1999). Lear's Daughters: The Studios of the Moscow Fine art Theatre 1905–1927. American University Studies, Ser. 26 Theatre Arts. Vol. 29. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN978-0-8204-4155-9.
• Goldhill, Simon (1997). "The Audition of Athenian Tragedy". In Easterling, P. Due east. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy. Cambridge Companions to Literature series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 54–68. ISBN0-521-42351-1.
• Goldhill, Simon (2004). "Programme Notes". In Goldhill, Simon; Osborne, Robin (eds.). Performance Culture and Athenian Democracy (New ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Academy Press. pp. 1–29. ISBN978-0-521-60431-4.
• Gordon, Mel (1983). Lazzi: The Comic Routines of the Commedia dell'Arte. New York: Performing Arts Periodical. ISBN0-933826-69-9.
• Gordon, Robert (2006). The Purpose of Playing: Mod Acting Theories in Perspective. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN978-0-472-06887-six.
• Aristotle (1987). Poetics with Tractatus Coislinianus, Reconstruction of Poetics II and the Fragments of the On Poets. Translated by Janko, Richard. Cambridge: Hackett. ISBN978-0-87220-033-3.
• Johnstone, Keith (2007) [1981]. Impro: Improvisation and the Theatre (revised ed.). London: Methuen. ISBN0-7136-8701-0.
• Jones, John Bush (2003). Our Musicals, Ourselves: A Social History of the American Musical Theatre. Hanover: Brandeis University Press. ISBNone-58465-311-6.
• Kovacs, David (2005). "Text and Transmission". In Gregory, Justina (ed.). A Companion to Greek Tragedy. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World series. Malden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 379–393. ISBN1-4051-7549-4.
• Kuritz, Paul (1988). The Making of Theatre History. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0-13-547861-five.
• Leach, Robert (2004). Makers of Modernistic Theatre: An Introduction. London: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-31241-vii.
• Ley, Graham (2007). The Theatricality of Greek Tragedy: Playing Space and Chorus. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-47757-2.
• Milling, Jane; Ley, Graham (2001). Mod Theories of Performance: From Stanislavski to Boal. Basingstoke, Hampshire, and New York: Palgrave. ISBN978-0-333-77542-four.
• Moreh, Shmuel (1986). "Alive Theater in Medieval Islam". In Sharon, Moshe (ed.). Studies in Islamic History and Culture in Honour of Professor David Ayalon. Cana, Leiden: Brill. pp. 565–601. ISBN965-264-014-Ten.
• Pavis, Patrice (1998). Lexicon of the Theatre: Terms, Concepts, and Analysis . Translated by Christine Shantz. Toronto and Buffalo: Academy of Toronto Printing. ISBN978-0-8020-8163-half dozen.
• Pelling, Christopher (2005). "Tragedy, Rhetoric, and Performance Culture". In Gregory, Justina (ed.). A Companion to Greek Tragedy. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient Earth series. Malden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 83–102. ISBN1-4051-7549-4.
• Peterson, Richard A. (1982). "Five Constraints on the Production of Civilisation: Law, Engineering, Market, Organizational Structure and Occupational Careers". The Journal of Popular Culture (16.2): 143–153.
• Pfister, Manfred (2000) [1977]. The Theory and Analysis of Drama. European Studies in English Literature series. Translated past John Halliday. Cambridige: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-42383-0.
• Rehm, Rusj (1992). Greek Tragic Theatre. Theatre Production Studies. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN0-415-11894-8.
• Richmond, Farley (1998) [1995]. "India". In Banham, Martin (ed.). The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge Academy Press. pp. 516–525. ISBN0-521-43437-eight.
• Richmond, Farley P.; Swann, Darius Fifty. & Zarrilli, Phillip B., eds. (1993). Indian Theatre: Traditions of Operation. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN978-0-8248-1322-2.
• Spolin, Viola (1999) [1963]. Improvisation for the Theater (Third ed.). Evanston, Il: Northwestern University Press. ISBN0-8101-4008-X.
• Styan, J. L. (2000). Drama: A Guide to the Report of Plays. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN978-0-8204-4489-five.
• Taxidou, Olga (2004). Tragedy, Modernity and Mourning. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Printing. ISBN0-7486-1987-9.
• Teachout, Terry. "The Best Theater of 2021: The Curtain Goes Up Again". wsj. orangepolly. Retrieved March 3, 2022.
• Ward, A.C (2007) [1945]. Specimens of English Dramatic Criticism XVII–XX Centuries. The World's Classics serial. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-ane-4086-3115-7.
• Webster, T. B. Fifty. (1967). "Monuments Illustrating Tragedy and Satyr Play". Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies (Supplement, with appendix) (second ed.). University of London (20): iii–190.
• Williams, Raymond (1966). Modern Tragedy. London: Chatto & Windus. ISBN0-7011-1260-3.

Further reading [edit]

• Aston, Elaine, and George Savona. 1991. Theatre as Sign-System: A Semiotics of Text and Operation. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-04932-0.
• Benjamin, Walter. 1928. The Origin of German Tragic Drama. Trans. John Osborne. London and New York: Verso, 1998. ISBN ane-85984-899-0.
• Brown, John Russell. 1997. What is Theatre?: An Introduction and Exploration. Boston and Oxford: Focal P. ISBN 978-0-240-80232-ix.
• Bryant, Jye (2018). Writing & Staging A New Musical: A Handbook. Kindle Direct Publishing. ISBN 9781730897412.
• Carnicke, Sharon Marie. 2000. "Stanislavsky'due south Organization: Pathways for the Actor". In Hodge (2000, 11–36).
• Dacre, Kathy, and Paul Fryer, eds. 2008. Stanislavski on Stage. Sidcup, Kent: Stanislavski Centre Rose Bruford College. ISBN one-903454-01-8.
• Deleuze, Gilles and Félix Guattari. 1972. Anti-Œdipus. Trans. Robert Hurley, Mark Seem and Helen R. Lane. London and New York: Continuum, 2004. Vol. ane. New Accents Ser. London and New York: Methuen. ISBN 0-416-72060-nine.
• Felski, Rita, ed. 2008. Rethinking Tragedy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Upward. ISBN 0-8018-8740-2.
• Harrison, Martin. 1998. The Language of Theatre. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0878300877.
• Hartnoll, Phyllis, ed. 1983. The Oxford Companion to the Theatre. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford Upwards. ISBN 978-0-19-211546-1.
• Hodge, Alison, ed. 2000. Twentieth-Century Actor Training. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-19452-5.
• Leach, Robert (1989). Vsevolod Meyerhold. Directors in Perspective serial. Cambridge: Cambridge University Printing. ISBN978-0-521-31843-three.
• Leach, Robert, and Victor Borovsky, eds. 1999. A History of Russian Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-03435-vii.
• Meyer-Dinkgräfe, Daniel. 2001. Approaches to Acting: Past and Nowadays. London and New York: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-7879-5.
• Meyerhold, Vsevolod. 1991. Meyerhold on Theatre. Ed. and trans. Edward Braun. Revised edition. London: Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38790-five.
• Mitter, Shomit. 1992. Systems of Rehearsal: Stanislavsky, Brecht, Grotowski and Brook. London and NY: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-06784-iii.
• O'Brien, Nick. 2010. Stanislavski In Practise. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-56843-2.
• Rayner, Alice. 1994. To Act, To Do, To Perform: Drama and the Phenomenology of Activeness. Theater: Theory/Text/Performance Ser. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Printing. ISBN 978-0-472-10537-3.
• Roach, Joseph R. 1985. The Actor's Passion: Studies in the Science of Interim. Theater:Theory/Text/Functioning Ser. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P. ISBN 978-0-472-08244-five.
• Speirs, Ronald, trans. 1999. The Birth of Tragedy and Other Writings. Past Friedrich Nietzsche. Ed. Raymond Geuss and Ronald Speirs. Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy ser. Cambridge: Cambridge Up. ISBN 0-521-63987-5.

External links [edit]

Wikimedia Eatables has media related to Theatre.

• Theatre Archive Project (UK) British Library & University of Sheffield.
• University of Bristol Theatre Drove
• Music Hall and Theatre History of United kingdom and Ireland

gipeensiony40.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre

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